Thispartofthebookisarrangedsothatreadersprimarilyinterestedinonlyoneofthesetopicswon'thavetowadethrough discussionsoftheothertwo. Workplaceissuesarediscussedinchapters7and10,educationalissuesinchapters8and11,andthequestionofchildren'sbehaviorand values whichisrelevanttoteachersaswellasparents inchapters9and Seriousreaderswillfindthattheendnotesprovidenotonlycitationsforthestudiesand quotationsbutadditionalthoughts,qualifications,anddiscussionoftheissuesraisedinthetext.
Becausethisprojectisbothambitiousandcontroversial,theonlysensiblethingtodoatthispointistrytoplacesomeoftheblameformyconclusionsonthepeople whohelpedme.
Iwasfirstintroducedtoresearchonthedetrimentaleffectsofrewards particularlywithrespecttocreativity byTeresaAmabile. Myviewsonraising andteachingchildrenhavebeenmightilyinfluencedbythewisdomofEricSchapsandMarilynWatson. IcontinuetotakeadvantageofeverychanceIgettoexchange ideaswiththesethreepeople,allofwhomIconsiderfriends.
Forsome reasontheyagreedtothis,eventhoughmostofthemdidn'tknowme. Skinner who,ofcourse,wouldhavebeenappalledby. Bill,whohasdonethisformefourtimesnow,haslongsincegonebeyond thecallofdutyorfriendship.
Finally,letmeacknowledgetheassistanceandsupportprovidedbyRuthHapgoodandBetsyLerner,myeditors,andJohnWare,myagent,aswellasallthepeople who,havingheardmespeakaboutrewards,askedhardquestionsthatforcedmetorethinkmycritique,refinemypresentation,andreconsidertheevidence.
They've donemeagreatservicebychallengingsomeofmyassumptions. Thetimetoworryiswhentheideaisso widelysharedthatwenolongerevennoticeit,whenitissodeeplyrootedthatitfeelstouslikeplaincommonsense. Atthepointwhenobjectionsarenotanswered anymorebecausetheyarenolongerevenraised,wearenotincontrol:wedonothavetheideaithasus. Theideaisthatthebestwaytogetsomethingdoneistoprovidearewardtopeoplewhen theyactthewaywewantthemto. Whatinterests me,though,isthepopular orpop incarnationofthisdoctrine,theversionthatlivesinourcollectiveconsciousnessandaffectswhatwedoeveryday.
Wetakeforgrantedthatthisisthelogicalwaytoraisechildren,teach students,andmanageemployees. WedangleanAbeforeateenagertogetherto studyharder. Iwanttoarguethatthereissomethingprofoundlywrongheadedaboutthisdoctrinethatitsassumptionsaremisleadingand thepracticesitgeneratesarebothintrinsicallyobjectionableandcounterproductive.
Thislastcontentioninparticular,thatfromapurelypragmaticpointofviewpop behaviorismusuallyfailstoproducetheconsequencesweintended,takesupmostofthepagesthatfollow. Itisnotbubblegumitselfthatisthe problem,normoney,norloveandattention. Whatconcernsmeisthepractice ofusingthesethingsasrewards.
Ourattentionisproperlyfocused,inotherwords,noton"that" thethingdesired butontherequirementthatonemustdothisinordertogetthat. Itisbut onewayofthinkingandspeaking,oforganizingourexperienceanddealingwithothers. Itmayseemnaturaltous,butitactuallyreflectsaparticularideologythatcan bequestioned. Thesteeppricewepayforouruncriticalallegiancetotheuseofrewardsiswhatmakesthisstorynot onlyintriguingbutalsodeeplydisconcerting. Watsonsuggestedthatbehaviorism,ofwhichheisknownas thefather,beganwithaseriesoflectureshegaveatColumbiaUniversityin Butasummarystatementverysimilarto"Dothisandyou'llgetthat"thesocalled LawofEffect,whichstatesthatbehaviorleadingtoapositiveconsequencewillberepeatedwassetoutbypsychologistEdwardThorndikebackin Taylorpublishedhisfamousbook,ThePrinciplesofScientificManagement,whichdescribedhowtasksata factoryshouldbebrokenintoparts,eachassignedtoaworkeraccordingtoapreciseplan,withfinancialrewardsmetedouttoencouragemaximumefficiencyin production.
Afullcenturyearlier,asystemdevelopedinEnglandformanagingthebehaviorofschoolchildrenassignedsomestudentstomonitorothersanddistributedtickets redeemablefortoys tothosewhodidwhattheyweresupposedtodo.
Butafewwordsaboutthemoreacademic version,andtheremarkablebeliefsofitsfounders,willhelpusunderstandjustwhatisinvolvedwhenrewardsareofferedineverydaylife. Survivorsofintroductorypsychologycourseswillrecallthattherearetwomajorvarietiesoflearningtheory:classicalconditioning identifiedwithPavlov'sdogs and operant,orinstrumental,conditioning identifiedwithSkinner'srats.
Classicalconditioningbeginswiththeobservationthatsomethingsproducenaturalresponses: Roversalivateswhenhesmellsmeat. Bypairinganartificialstimuluswiththenaturalonesay,ringingabellwhenthesteakappearsRovercomestoassociate thetwo. WhenarewardSkinner preferredtheterm"reinforcement"4 followsabehavior,thatbehaviorislikelytoberepeated.
Agooddealofresearchhasrefinedandembellishedthis straightforwardprinciple,focusingonsuchissuesashowtotimetheserewardsforbesteffect. ButSkinneriantheorybasicallycodifiesandbestowssolemnscientific namesonsomethingfamiliartoallofus:"Dothisandyou'llgetthat"willleadanorganismtodo"this"again. Thereisnoshortage offamiliarexamplestofleshouttheconcepts. Itwaseventuallyabandonedbecause,intheviewoftheschool'strustees,theuseofrewards"fosteredamercenaryspirit"and"engenderedstrifesand jealousies.
Hewasstudyingthephysiologyofdigestionwhenhenoticed,atfirsttohisannoyance,thatthedoginhis laboratorywasdroolingbeforebeingabletosmellanymeat. Anyonewhohaseverwatchedachildsettledowninahurry whenpromisedatreatfordoingsoknowsthatrewardscanaffectbehavior. Tobeginwith,though,itfocusesonasetofbeliefsaboutthisphenomenonand,by implication,abouthumanbeings. Skinneriansarenotonlyinterestedinfiguringouthowrewardsworktheyareapttoarguethatvirtuallyeverythingwedoindeed, whowearecanbeexplainedintermsoftheprincipleofreinforcement.
Thisfactdid notgivehimpause,becausepeopletohimweredifferentfromotherspeciesonlyinthedegreeoftheirsophistication. Asabehavioristseesit,youaremorecomplex thanapigeon inlargepartbecauseyouhavevocalcords ,butthetheoryoflearningthatexplainshowabirdtrappedinalaboratoryapparatuscalledaSkinnerbox comestopeckrepeatedlyatadiskalsosufficestoexplainhowyouandIcometounderstandsymbolism.
Thusitisthat behavioristsspeaksweepinglyofhow"organisms"learn. ButBurrhusFredericSkinner,whodiedinattheage ofeightysix,wasnotmostpeople. Itisalso difficulttousethetechniqueofreductioadabsurduminchallengingthem. Criticshaveexclaimed,"Butifthat'strue,thenhere'sthe[obviouslyludicrous]conclusionthat follows. IntheepiloguetoSkinner'smemoirsweread: Iamsometimesasked,"Doyouthinkofyourselfasyouthinkoftheorganismsyoustudy? SofarasIknow,mybehavioratanygivenmomenthasbeen nothingmorethantheproductofmygeneticendowment,mypersonalhistory,andthecurrentsetting IfIamrightabouthumanbehavior,Ihavewrittentheautobiographyof anonperson.
Sureenough,overthecourseoffourhundredpages,thebookgivestheimpressionthatsomeoneelseistellingthestorysomeonewhodoesn'tcaremuchabout him,infact. Hismother'sdeathisrelatedwithoutfeeling,andtheprocessofraisinghistwodaughtersisdescribedasifitwereoneofFrederickTaylor'sefficiency studies. Oncetheselfhasbeendispatched,itrequiresonlyaminormoppingupoperationtofinishoffthefeaturesofbeinghumanthatwetreasure,suchascreativity,love, morality,andfreedom. Excerptsfromthoseinterviewsare containedinAppendixA.
Whentwopeoplemeet, oneofthemisnicetotheotherandthatpredisposestheothertobenicetohim,andthatmakeshimevenmorelikelytobenice. Itgoesbackandforth,anditmayreachthepoint atwhichtheyareveryhighlydisposedtodonicethingstotheotherandnottohurt.
Morality,forSkinnerandotherbehaviorists,hasbeenreducedtothequestionofwhethersocietydeemsanactionappropriateorinappropriate,adaptiveor maladaptiveitisneverinherentlyrightorwrong. Theonlygoodthingsarepositivereinforcers,andtheonlybad thingsarenegativereinforcers Philosophersdistinguishbetweenthisnonmoraluseofthewordgood asin"It'sgoodtotakeoutthetrashbeforethebaggetstoofull" andamoraluse "It'sgoodto tellthetruth".
Hisviewoffreedom,meanwhile,isbetterknownsincethisisoneofthetwoconceptsbehaviorismhelpsustomovebeyond,accordingtothetitleofhisbestselling bookpublishedin Attheconclusionofhisremarks,Icouldn'tresista bitofflippanthumor. Smiling courteously,hereplied,"I'mverygladtheyoccurred. Iftherestofus presumptuouslypersistintalkingabout"intending"todosomething,itiseitherbecausewederivecomfortfromthinkingofourselvesasbeingincontrolorbecausewe areignorant,individuallyandcollectively,oftheforcesthatactuallydetermineourbehavior.
Freedom'sjustanotherwordforsomethinglefttolearn:itisthewaywe refertotheeverdiminishingsetofphenomenaforwhichsciencehasyettospecifythecauses. Andnowwehavethekeytounderstandingtheessenceofbehaviorism:itproceedsfromaboundlessfaithinscienceandspecifically,anarrowlydefinedversionof sciencethatnevercaughtupwithmodernphysicstotelluseverythingweneedtoknow.
Thisisdescribedbysomephilosophersas"scientism,"bywhichismeant theassumptionthatalltrueknowledgeisscientificknowledge. Humanbeingsaretobeanalyzedinpreciselythesamewayaswewouldanalyze"achemicalcompound orthewayaplantgrows,"saidWatson. Anythingthatisnot observable,testable,andquantifiableeitherisnotworthourtimeordoesnotreallyexist. PsychologistswhotalkaboutconsciousnessputWatsoninmindof"the ancientdaysofsuperstitionandmagic. Theconsequenceofpatterningpsychologyafterthenaturalsciencesispredictable:psychology'ssubjectmatter us isreducedtothestatusofthesubjectmatterof physicsandchemistry things.
Whenmostofustrytoaccountforhumanbehavior,though,wetalkabout reasonsaconsciousdecision,ratherthananautomaticresponsetosomeoutsideforce,usuallyplaysarole. ButforSkinner,ouractions,too,canbecompletely describedintermsofcauses. Thisisthebeliefthat givesbehaviorismitsname. Afewyearsago,agroupofbusinessmenacceptedaresearcher'sofferofafree mealinexchangefortheircommentsonhernewpsychologicalquestionnaire.
Oneofthemen,onhisthirdcigarettebeforedinner,wasscornfulofaquestionthat referredtoa"feelingoftrust"intheworkplace. Hesaidhedidn'tunderstandwhatthewordtrustmeant,apartfromitsmostliteraldenotation:"I'trust'thatyouare writingdownwhatI'msayingrightnow. In fact,ifitcan'tbequantified,it'snotreal. Itisnoaccidentthatbehaviorismisthiscountry'smajorcontributiontothefieldofpsychology,orthattheonly philosophicalmovementnativetotheUnitedStatesispragmatism. Weareanationthatprefersactingtothinking,andpracticetotheorywearesuspiciousof intellectuals,.
Wedefineourselvesbynumberstakehomepayandcholesterolcounts,percentiles howmuchdoesyour babyweigh? Bycontrast,weareuneasywithintangiblesandunscientificabstractionssuchasa senseofwellbeingoranintrinsicmotivationtolearn.
Butitisimportanttounderstandthatpracticedoesrestontheory,whetherornotthattheoryhasbeen explicitlyidentified. Theoverwhelmingmajorityofteachers,accordingtoonesurvey,areunabletonameordescribeatheoryoflearningthatunderlieswhattheydoin theclassroom,14butwhattheydowhatanyofusdoesisnolessinformedbytheoreticalassumptionsjustbecausetheseassumptionsareinvisible. Behindthe practiceofpresentingacolorfuldinosaurstickertoafirstgraderwhostayssilentoncommandisatheorythatembodiesdistinctassumptionsaboutthenatureof knowledge,thepossibilityofchoice,andwhatitmeanstobeahumanbeing.
Ifthepremisesofbehaviorismtroubleusoncetheyhavebeenlaidbare,perhapsthatis aninvitationtoquestionthespecificpracticesthatrestonthosepremises. Itistruethattheyweremoreextremethansubsequent researchersandtherapistsoncertainissues,suchasthestatusofaninnerlife. Feelings,attitudes,andintentionsweresuspecttothemuselessforexplaininganything peopledo,completelydeterminedbyexternalfactors,largelyirrelevanttotheirversionofpsychology.
Inmanyintellectualmovements,thepioneersare unreconstructedandimmoderateitislefttothenextgenerationtotemperandqualifyandblendinwhatisusefulfromothertheories. Tosomeextent,behaviorismdid moveonwhileSkinnerstoodstill. Inhislast paper,completedthenightbeforehedied,Skinnerreiteratedthat"thereisnoplaceinascientificanalysisofbehaviorforamindorself. ButifmorerestrainedandlessquotablebehavioristshavetrimmedofftheroughedgesofSkinnerianpsychology,theyarecarryingonatraditionthatisfundamentally consistentwithwhatIhavebeendescribing,atleastwithrespecttotheissuesthatmattermost.
Theymayhavefastenedonthefindingthatwealsolearnfromwatching otherpeoplereceiverewards,orthatattitudesaswellasbehaviorscanbereinforced,butthesearenotdecisivedeparturesfromSkinnerwithregardtowhatconcerns ushere. Moreimportant,wecandepartfromSkinneratthispointandbegintoaddressourselvestocontemporarypayforperformanceplansintheworkplaceorthe techniqueofpastingagoldstaronacharteachtimeachildcomplieswithherparents'demands.
Torepeat,thisbookisintendedasacritiqueofthesesortsof practices,ofpopbehaviorismratherthanofSkinner,sowhetherthevisionofaseamlesslycontrolledutopialikeWaldenTwochillsyouisbesidethepoint.
Thereis reasonenoughtobeconcernedoncewereflectseriouslyontheimplicationsof"Dothisandyou'llgetthat. Thereislittledanger ofdoingthatherebecauseitishardtoimaginehowonecouldexaggeratetheextentofoursaturationinpopbehaviorism. Regardlessofpoliticalpersuasionorsocial class,whetheraFortuneCEOorapreschoolteacher,weareimmersedinthisdoctrineitisasAmericanasrewardingsomeonewithapplepie.
Ifthegradesaregood enough,someparentsthenhandoutbicyclesorcarsorcash,therebyofferingwhatare,ineffect,rewardsforrewards. Educatorsareremarkablyimaginativein inventingnew,improvedversionsofthesamebasicidea. AtonehighschoolinGeorgia,forexample,studentsweregivengoldIDcardsiftheyhadanAaverage, silvercardsforaBaverage,andplainwhitecardsiftheydidn'tmeasureupuntilobjectionswereraisedtowhatwaswidelyviewedasacastesystem.
Afewyearsago,someexecutiveatthePizzaHutrestaurantchaindecidedletusassumeforentirelyaltruisticreasonsthatthecompanyshouldsponsora programtoencouragechildrentoreadmore. ProposalstorescueAmericaneducation,offeredbypublicofficialsandcorporatechieftains thelatterhavingbeenpermittedauniquelyprivilegedroleinthisdiscussion ,areuniformlybehavioristic,regardlessofwhethertheycomefromliberalDemocratsor conservativeRepublicans. Politiciansmayquibbleoverhowmuchmoneytospend,orwhethertoallowpublicfundstofollowstudentstoprivateschools,butvirtually noonechallengesthefundamentalcarrotandstickapproachtomotivation:promiseeducatorspayraisesforsuccessorthreatentheirjobsecurityforfailure typicallyonthebasisoftheirstudents'standardizedtestscoresanditisassumedthateducationalexcellencewillfollow.
Toinducechildrento"behave" thatis,dowhatwewant ,werelyonpreciselythesametheoryofmotivationtheonlyoneweknowbyhaulingoutanotherbag ofgoodies. Atschool,teacherspromise extrarecessorspecialpartiesforobedientclasses. InanIndianaelementaryschool,childrendemonstratingexemplarydocilityinthecafeteriaarerewardedwitha fancydressupmeal.
Anytimewewishtoencourageordiscouragecertainbehaviorsgetting peopletoloseweightorquitsmoking,forinstancethemethodofchoiceisbehavioralmanipulation. Thus,whenseveralPlannedParenthoodchapterswantedtoget seriousaboutteenagepregnancy,theynaturallyreachedforthereinforcements,inthiscasebypayingyoungmothersadollarforeverydaytheyavoidedgetting pregnantagain. Fromthefactoryworkerlaboringforpieceworkpaytotopexecutivesproddedby promisesofstockoptions,fromspecialprivilegesaccordedtoEmployeesoftheMonthtosalespeople.
Dependingonthesizeandtypeoftheorganizationssurveyedandtheway thequestionisframed,recentestimatesofthenumberofU. Topagethroughbusinessbookstodayistoencounterrepeatedassertionssuchasthisone:''Whatgets measured,getsproduced. Nosurveyofthepervasivenessofpopbehaviorismwouldbecompletewithoutmentionoftheonepracticethatiscommontoallarenas school,work,andhome and usedforallconceivableobjectives enhancinglearning,improvingproductivity,andchangingpeople'sattitudesorbehavior.
Iamspeakingofpraise,whichSkinner called"thegreatesttoolinbehaviormodification. Evenpeoplewhohaveconcernsaboutpilingontangiblerewardsshownohesitationabouttheindiscriminateuseofverbalrewards,whichare,of course,anothermanifestationofthesameprinciple. Approvalorpleasureisoftennotmerelyexpressedbutdoledoutdeliberately,conditionally,aspartofacalculated strategytoshapeothers'behavior.
Iwillhavemoretosayaboutthedistinctionbetweenusefulpositivefeedbackandpraiseasaninstrumentofmanipulationin chapter6. Ongeneralprinciple,itisagoodideatochallenge ourselvesinthiswayaboutanythingwehavecometotakeforgrantedthemorehabitual,themorevaluablethislineofinquiry. Thereareidentifiablereasonstoaccountforitspopularity,beginningwiththebeliefsystems alreadyinplacewhichitcomplements.
OneoftheseImentionedearlier:ourpragmatism,andspecificallyourtendencytofavorpracticaltechniquesforgettingthejob doneasopposedtogettingboggeddownwiththeoriesandreasons. Anationofbusypioneersandentrepreneurshasnotimeforfiguringoutthesourceofaproblem muchmorecompatiblewiththeAmericanspiritisasimpledeclarationthatwouldseemtoassureresults:"Dothisandyou'llgetthat.
Itmay seemabitofastretchtocomparepayforperformanceplanstoreligiousnotionsofredemptionorenlightenmentorkarma,whicharedecidedlydifferentfrom behaviorism,buttheifthencontingencyisjustassalientinthelattersetofideas. Wehavebeentaughtthatethicalconductwillberewardedandevilactspunished, evenifitdoesnothappeninthislifetime:"Whenthoumakestafeast,callthepoor,themaimed,thelame,theblind:Andthoushaltbe Wehavealsobeentaughtthatgoodactsorhardworkshouldberewarded,andthisposition,asIwillarguelater,leads somepeopletoinclinetowardpopbehaviorismregardlessoftheresultsitproduces.
Ironically,rewardsandpunishmentsnotonlylieatthecoreoffaithbutarecentraltoourideaofrationalityaswell,particularlyasitmakesitspresencefeltineconomic choices. Rationality,inturn,iscentraltowhatit meanstobehuman,atleasttomanyWesternthinkers. Anumberofwritershaverecentlychallengedbothstepsofthisargument,butpopbehaviorismmakesintuitive sensetousasaresultoftheassumptionsbuiltintooureconomicsystem.
Infact,behavioralpsychologyandorthodoxeconomictheoryhaveestablishedasortofmutualadmirationsocietythatflattersbothfields,butonlybycreatinga truncatedpictureofthehumanbeing.
Onthefirstpagesoftheirtextbooks,economistsoftennodinthedirectionofbehaviorismtojustifytheirfundamentalassumptions aboutwhatmotivatesconsumersorworkers. Psychologistsinturnassumethattheprocessofweighingcostsandbenefitsthatdescribeshowwegoaboutpurchasing anapplianceisalsowhatwearedoingwhentalkingwithalover. Amongthefeaturescommontobothdisciplines,moreover,istheassumptionthatthereward seeking,punishmentavoidingimpulsethatdrivesallourbehaviorisnecessarilyandexclusivelydictatedbyselfinterest.
Butwhatweseeand doisalsocritical. Whatweseefromourearliestdaysistheuseofthecarrotandstickmodelofmotivationmostofuswereraisedthisway,anditiseasytoswallow suchtheorieswholeandpassalongthepracticestoourownchildren. Manynewparentsarestartledwhentheyopentheirmouthsandheartheirownparents' expressionscomeout,rightdowntotheinflection.
Buteventhosewhowanttoknowhowtheirmothersmanagedtosneakintotheirlarynxesmaynotrecognizehow theyhavealsoabsorbedbasicassumptionsfromwhichtheirapproachtoraisingchildrenderives.
FrederickHerzbergobservedthatmanagerswhoemphasizerewardsandpunishments"offertheirownmotivationalcharacteristicsasthepatterntobeinstilledintheir subordinates. Inaverylimitedsenseandjusthowlimitedisthe subjectofmuchoftherestofthisbookrewardsandpunishmentsdowork. Intheshortterm,wecangetpeopletodoanynumberofthingsbymakingitworth theirwhile. IfImaketherewardcontingentonyournot onlydoingwhatIwantbutdoingitimmediatelyorquicklyorrepeatedly,youmaywellcomply. Ifyouareaparentwhohasfoundthatyourchildrenpromptlymaketheirbedswhenyoupromisethemicecreamconesfordoingso,youmayconcludethatrewards areeffective.
ResearchbyAnnBoggianoandhercolleagueshas shownthatAmericanadults,includingparents,arefirmbelieversinrewards. Typically,itisassumedthatrewardswillincreasechildren'sinterestinanacademic assignmentortheircommitmenttoaltruisticbehavior. Evenwhenpresentedwithdataindicatingthatthereverseistrue,collegestudentsinoneexperiment continuedtoinsistthatrewardsareeffective.
Attendtoyourexperienceandyouwillnoticenotonlythatrewardswork inthisverycircumscribedsense ,butalsothattheyaremarvelouslyeasytouse. Inthe middleofalectureonbehaviorismafewyearsagoinIdaho,oneteacherintheaudienceblurtedout,"Butstickersaresoeasy!
Ifshefinds herselfirritatedthatchildreninherclassaretalking,ittakescourageandthoughttoconsiderwhetheritisreallyreasonabletoexpectthemtositquietlyforsolong ortoaskherselfwhethertheproblemmightbeherowndiscomfortwithnoise.
Butittakesnocourage,nothought,noeffort, nopatience,notalent,andnotimetoannounce,"Keepquietandhere'swhatyou'llget Thistootakestimeand effortandthoughtandpatienceandtalent. Inmanyworkplaces,incentiveplansareusedasasubstitutefor management:payismadecontingentonperformanceandeverythingelseislefttotakecareofitself.
Alltold,thismaybethe singlemostpowerfulreasontoexplainthepopularityofpopbehaviorism:itisseductivelysimpletoapply. Butdoesn'tthewidespreaduseofrewardssuggest contrarytowhatIhavebeenpromisingtoshowinlaterchapters thattheywork? Whywouldafailedstrategybe preferred?
Fornow,itwillbeenoughtoanswerintemporal terms:thenegativeeffectsappearoveralongerperiodoftime,andbythentheirconnectiontotherewardmaynotbeatallobvious. Theresultisthatrewardskeep gettingused. Bythesametoken sotospeak ,itrarelydawnsonusthatwhilepeoplemayseemtorespondtothegoodiesweoffer,theveryneedtokeepofferingthesetreatsto elicitthesamebehaviormayofferaclueabouttheirlongtermeffects orlackofthem.
WhackingmycomputerwhenIfirstturnitonmaysomehowhelptheoperating systemtoengage,butifIhavetodothateverymorning,IwilleventuallygettheideathatIamnotaddressingtherealproblem. IfIhavetowhackitharderand harder,Imightevenstarttosuspectthatmyquickfixismakingtheproblemworse. Rewardsdon'tbringaboutthechangeswearehopingfor,butthepointhereisalsothatsomethingelseisgoingon:themorerewardsareused,themoretheyseem tofeneeded. Asweshallsee,the other,moresubstantivereasonsforyoutodoyourbesttendtoevaporate,leavingyouwithnoreasontotryexceptforobtainingagoody.
Prettysoon,theprovisionof rewardsbecomeshabitualbecausethereseemstobenowaytodowithoutthem. Inshort,thecurrentuseofrewardsisduelesstosomefactabouthumannaturethan totheearlieruseofrewards. Itfitsneatly withotherinstitutionsandbeliefsystemswithwhichwearefamiliar. Butasidefromsometroublingquestionsaboutthetheoryofbehaviorism,whatreasondowehave fordisavowingthisstrategy?
Theinterestofthebehavioristinman'sdoingsismorethantheinterestofthespectatorhewantstocontrolman'sreactionsasphysicalscientistswanttocontrolandmanipulate othernaturalphenomena. Whentwopeoplefindthemselvesatoddsoveranissuelikecapitalpunishment,thedisagreementmayconcerntheintrinsicrightnessorwrongnessofthepolicyas opposedtoitsempiricaleffects.
Anopponentofthedeathpenaltymayargue,forexample,thatthereissomethingoffensiveabouttheideaofkillingpeopleinthename ofjustice. Separatefromthequestionofwhetherrewardsdowhatwewantthemtodois thequestionofwhetherthereissomethingfittingortroublingabouttheiruse. Somebelieveitisinherentlydesirabletogiverewards,thatpeopleoughttogetsomething forwhattheydoquiteapartfromtheconsequencesthismaybring.
Lestthese opposingvaluesgetburiedunderamoundofstudies andbecomeconfusedwithfactualfindings ,thischapterwillcarefullyexamineeachoftheminturn. Itseemstofollow,then,thatpeoplewho donotsucceedcanbeheldresponsiblefortheirfailure. Thisdoctrinehasspecialappealfor thosewhoaredoingwell,firstbecauseitallowsthemtothinktheirblessingsaredeserved,andsecondbecauseitsparesthemfromhavingtofeeltooguiltyabout or takeanyresponsibilityfor thosewhohavemuchless.
Thebeliefthatrewardswillbedistributedfairly,evenifittakesuntilthenextlifetimetosettleaccounts,isonecomponentofwhatissometimesreferredtoasthe"just world"view. Socialpsychologistshavefoundthatthosewhoholdthispositionareindeedlikelytoassumethatapparentlyinnocentvictimsmusthavedonesomething todeservetheirfatetofacethefactthatsufferingisvisiteduponinnocentpeopleis,ofcourse,torecognizethattheworldisnotparticularlyjustatall.
Itdoesnottake muchimaginationtoseewherethissortofthinkingcanlead:onegroupofchildren,afterwatchingafilmabouttheNazis,werereportedtohavesaid,"ButtheJews musthavebeenguiltyortheywouldn'thavebeenpunishedlikethat. Underpinningthisideaisanevenmorebasicandwidelyheld premise:deservingpeopleshouldberewarded. Manypeopleassume,at leastwithrespecttoimportantissues,thatthingseventuallyworkoutthewaytheyoughtto. Itisterriblyunsettling,afterall,toacknowledgethatoursociety,muchless lifeitself,isnotespeciallyfair.
Formanypeople,themoralisticcorollarytothisassumptionis thatbadthingsshouldbebestowedon,orgoodthingswithheldfrom,thosewhoareundeserving. Manyofushavewatchedpeoplebecomeuneasy,ifnotpositively furious,whentheybelievesomeoffenseincludingonecommittedbyachildhasnotbeenpunishedseverelyenough.
LaterinthisbookIwillarguethatachild's misbehaviorisbestconstruedasa"teachablemoment,"aproblemtobesolvedtogetherratherthananinfractionthatcallsfor. Iwilltrytoshowthatthisapproachisnotonlymorerespectfulandhumanebutalsomuchmoreeffectiveoverthelonghaulathelpingchildren developasenseofresponsibility.
ButIhaveseenpeoplebrushasidesucharguments,sometimesbecomingvisiblydisturbedattheprospectthatamiscreantwillnot havetosufferanyconsequencesforheraction. Consequencesmaybeacodewordforpunishment,andpunishmentmayproduceresentmentratherthan responsibility,butnevermind.
Theentirelyreasonableidealofpersonalresponsibilityhasbeentransformedinourcultureintoaterrorofpermissivenessthatextendsbeyondchildrearingtoa generalfearofsociallaxity. Whenpayisnotconditionedonperformancewearesometimessaidtoberewardingincompetence orlaziness andgivingsomepeople afreelunchaprospectthatsendsshuddersthroughexecutivediningrooms. Whenstrippedofthisharshrigidity,ofcourse,thebasicideathatpeopleshouldgetwhattheydeserve,whichsocialscientistsrefertoastheequityprinciple,seems unremarkableand,indeed,sointuitivelyplausibleastoserveformanypeoplevirtuallyasadefinitionoffairness.
Rarelydoweeventhinktoquestiontheideathatwhat youputinshoulddeterminewhatyoutakeout. Oncewestoptoexamineit,questionsimmediatelyariseastowhatconstitutes deservingness. Dowerewardonthebasisofhowmucheffortisexpended workhard,getmoregoodies? Doesitmake moresense,then,torewardonthebasisofsuccess dowell,getmoregoodies? Sowho"deserves"the rewardwhenlotsofpeoplehadahandintheperformance? Itisalsopossibleforeachpersontoreceivean equalshareofthegoodsorforneedtodeterminewhogetswhat.
Fewschoolprincipalshandoutmore suppliestotheteacherswhostayeduplongerthenightbeforetofinishalessonplanrather,theylookatthesizeandrequirementsofeachclass. Fewparentsdecide howmuchdinnertoservetoeachoftheirchildrenonthebasisofwhodidmoreforthehouseholdthatday. Fewpolicymakersandmoraltheorists,strugglingwiththe knottyquestionofhowtodistributescarcehealthcareresources,automaticallyassumethatthemostproductivecontributorstosociety whateverthatmeans should getthemostcare.
Inshort,theequitymodel,associalpsychologistMelvinLernerputit,"appliestoonlyalimitedrangeofthesocialencountersthatareaffectedbythedesirefor justice. What'smore,asMortonDeutschwarns,''thedangerofconceiving ofpersonalrelationsintermsappropriatetomarketplaceexchangesisthatithastensthedepersonalizationofpersonalrelationsbyfosteringtheintrusionofeconomic valuesintosuchrelations.
Justasimportantastherealizationthatprinciplesotherthanequitycouldlegitimatelybeinvokedinmanysituationsisthefactthatprinciplesotherthanequityare invokedinmanysituations. Ifwewanttopredicthowpeoplewillchoosetodistributeresources,themostimportantthingweneedtoknowiswhatkindofrelationship existsamongthoseinvolved.
Forexample,culturalbackgroundmatters:wherepeopleareaccustomedtothinkingincommunalratherthanindividualisticterms, theyaremorelikelytodistributerewardsequallyratherthanonthebasisofwhoperformedbetter. Sampson,apsychologistwhofrequentlywritesaboutAmericanculture,observedthatwehavebeenledto"takeequityasthenaturalstateanddeviations fromitasunnatural.
Tothispoint,Ihavebeenreferringtorewardsasresourcestobedistributed,whichmaybeanappropriatewaytothinkabout,say,whattodowithacompany's profitattheendoftheyear. Manygoodieshavebeen inventedfortheexpresspurposeofrewardingcertainkindsofbehavior.
Iftheequitymodelapplieshere,itcannotbeassumedonthebasisofrulesfordecidinghow muchtopayemployees. This claimstruckmeasanattempttodeflectattentionawayfromperhapstoescaperesponsibilityforthedecisionshehadmadetoframelearningassomethingone doesinexchangeforaprizeratherthanassomethingintrinsicallyvaluable. Afterthefact,onecouldclaimthatanyrewardwas"earned"bytheperformance orperformer ,butsincethesearenotneededgoodsthatmust behandedoutaccordingtooneprincipleoranother,wemusteventuallyrecognizenotonlythatthesizeoftherewardisarbitrarilydeterminedbytheteacherbutthat thedecisiontogiveanyrewardreflectsatheoryoflearningmorethanatheoryofjustice.
Whensuchindividualsarepressedontheirinsistencethatitissimplyrighttorewardpeopleforwhattheydo,itsometimesturnsoutthattheirrealconcerniswiththe resultstheyfearwouldfollowtheabolitionofrewards. Onebusinessconsultant,forexample,writesthathewashorrifiedtolearnaboutacompanythatallocated bonusesequallytoallemployees"mediocritywouldreceivethesamerewardsasexcellence,"heexclaims.
The underlyingassumption,accordingtoonecritic,seemstobethat"thesemistarvedratinthebox,withvirtuallynothingtodobutpressonaleverforfood,capturesthe essenceofvirtuallyallhumanbehavior. Wejointhemintaking"onegiantleaptowardmankind"14whenweimporttheprinciplesandtechniquesused totrainthefamilypettotherealmofraisingchildren.
Thewaywesometimestalkabout orto ourdaughtersandsonsreflectsaviewofparentchildrelationships quitecongenialtoacommittedbehaviorist. Discussionsabouthowto"handle"ourkidsareacaseinpointonreflection,thisseemsaratherpeculiarverbtouseinthe contextofarelationshipwithanotherhumanbeing. Beforethesewordscametobeusedasgenericrepresentationsofbribesandthreats,whatactuallystoodbetweenthecarrotandthestickwas,ofcourse,a jackass.
Presumablymostofusdonotintendtocompareourselvesormoreprecisely,thepeopletowhomweareadministeringtheseinducementstopoodlesor donkeys. Surelyweknowthathumanbeingscanreflectonrewardsanddevelopcomplicatedexpectationsandopinionsaboutthem andabouttheactivitiesforwhich theyarebeingdispensed inawaythatanimalscannot. Yetitisnotanaccidentthatthetheorybehind"Dothisandyou'llgetthat"derivesfromworkwithother species,orthatbehaviormanagementisfrequentlydescribedinwordsbettersuitedtoanimals.
ButIdonotmeanbythatwordmerelythatwearetreatedorunderstoodasbeingonaparwith otherspeciesthisisjustasymptom. InthecaseofSkinneriantheory,thehumanselfhasbeenyankedupbyitsrootsandthepersonreducedtoarepertoireof behaviors. Infact,eventosuggestthatwelearnorworkonlyin ordertoobtainrewardsanassumptionheldbybehavioristslessextremethanSkinnerisnotonlyinaccuratebutdemeaningaswell.
Butagain,thischaracterizationdoesnotgofarenoughbecausethe assumptionthatanorganism'sbehavioriswhollydependenton,andcontrolledby,reinforcementshasbeenshowntobeinaccurateevenforrodents. Perhaps,then,as sociologistWilliamFooteWhyteproposed,whatrewardsystemsfinallysuggestisanimplicitcomparisontononlivingthings: Managementalsoseemstoassumethatmachinesandworkersarealikeinthattheyarebothnormallypassiveagentswhomustbestimulatedbymanagementinordertogointo action.
Thebehaviorist'sconceptionofhumansaspassivebeingswhosebehaviormustbeelicitedbyexternalmotivationintheformofincentives19is,byanymeasure, outdated. Althoughtheworkdonebysomemodernpsychologistscontinuestorelyimplicitlyonthisassumption,moreandmoreresearchershavecometorecognize thatwearebeingswhopossessnaturalcuriosityaboutourselvesandourenvironment,whosearchforandovercomechallenges,whotrytomasterskillsandattain competence,andwhoseektoreachnewlevelsofcomplexityinwhatwelearnanddo. Thisismoretrueofsomepeoplethanothers,ofcourse,andinthepresenceof athreateningordeadeningenvironment,anyofusmayretreattoastrategyofdamagecontrolandminimaleffort.
Butingeneralweactontheenvironmentasmuchas weareactedonbyit,andwedonotdososimplyinordertoreceiveareward. Toputthistheother wayaround,oureverydaypracticesrestonanimplicittheoryofhumannaturethatfailstodousjustice.
Whenwerepeatedlypromiserewardstochildrenforacting responsibly,ortostudentsformakinganefforttolearnsomethingnew,ortoemployeesfordoingqualitywork,weareassumingthattheycouldnotorwouldnot choosetoactthiswayontheirown. Ifthecapacityforresponsibleaction,thenaturalloveoflearning,andthedesiretodogoodworkarealreadypartofwhoweare, thenthetacitassumptiontothecontrarycanfairlybedescribedasdehumanizing. Theunderlyingtheoryofhumannature,however,isnottheonlyreasonthathandingoutrewards or,forthatmatter,punishments isdehumanizing.
Thatdescription alsoseemstoapplybecausethepracticeis,atitscore,neithermorenorlessthanawayoftryingtocontrolpeople. Nowtherearecircumstances,especiallywhere childrenareinvolved,inwhichitisdifficulttoimagineeliminatingallvestigesofcontrol. Butanyonewhoistroubledbyamodelof humanrelationshipfoundedprincipallyontheideaofonepersoncontrollinganothermustponderwhetherrewardsareasinnocuousastheyaresometimesmadeout tobe.
Thisiswhyoneofthemost important andunsettling thingswecanrecognizeisthattherealchoiceforusisnotbetweenrewardsandpunishmentsbutbetweeneitherversionofbehavioral manipulation,ontheonehand,andanapproachthatdoesnotrelyoncontrol,ontheother. Considerthesocalledtokeneconomy,whichisusedprimarilywithcaptive,dependent populationssuchaspatientsinpsychiatrichospitalsorchildreninschool.
Theideaagain,explicitlyderivedfromworkwithlaboratoryanimals25isthatwhenthe peopleinchargenoticethepatientsorchildrenengaginginthe"correct"sortofbehaviors,chipsorothermarkersarehandedoutthatcanbeexchangedlaterfor privilegesortreats.
Wedon'tneedcriticsofthisapproachtoteachusthis,howevertherelianceoncrudecontrolisapointmademoreconvincingly albeitunintentionally bythevocal proponentsoftokeneconomies. Inanarticleforschoolpsychologists,apioneerofsuchplanswritesthat"childrenneedtoberemindedfrequentlythattheyare workingforreinforcers"andthat"ateachermustalwayskeepinmindthattheteacheristhemanageroftheclassroom. Anycomplaintsfromchildrenwhothinktheadministrationoftherewardsisunfair"canbeeasilyhandledbyignoringorredirecting''ifsuch concernsare''simplynotreinforce[d] Justasthreatsaresimplyamoreblatantversionofcontrolthanbribesare,sotokeneconomiesmerelyexaggeratethemanipulationthatdescribesother,less systematic,applicationsofrewards.
Thepointtobeemphasizedisthatallrewards,byvirtueofbeingrewards,arenotattemptstoinfluenceorpersuadeorsolve problemstogether,butsimplytocontrol. Not all words of support are counterproductive, but certainly those intended to manipulate behaviour are.
So what are you suggesting instead? We break ideas down into tiny pieces that bear no relation to the whole. I talked to the stakeholders of the system, pitched it to my manager, and got permission for us to shift our focus and do something that was both good for the client and infinitely more interesting for him. This would seem to avoid the control disease that the entire English system of schooling has clearly built into it.
We are a society of loyal Skinnerians, unable to think our way out of the box we have reinforced ourselves into. Skillful teaching involves facilitating the process by which kids come to grapple with complex ideas—and those ideas, as John Dewey has told us, have to emerge organically from the real-life interests and concerns of the kids.
Refresh and try rewwrds. Where to buy it. Admittedly, most university students were long ago thoroughly conditioned to do work only if some assessment is attached to it. Seasoned with humor and familiar examples, Punished by Rewards presents an argument that is unsettling to hear but impossible to dismiss. A good book for beginner teachers.
And god punihed is this repetitive. Thanks for telling us about the problem. The main problems that I have had are when parents and teachers though almost never children seem unable to make the change. Parents and teachers who care about helping students to learn, meanwhile, should be doing everything possible to help them forget that grades exist.
Even praise can become a verbal bribe that gets kids hooked on our approval. What is needed, Kohn explains, is an alternative to both ways of controlling people.
The final chapters offer a practical set of strategies for parents, teachers, and managers that move beyond the use of carrots or sticks. Seasoned with humor and familiar examples, Punished by Rewards presents an argument that is unsettling to hear but impossible to dismiss.
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